Author: Katherine Adee

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Chesnutt’s “The Sheriff’s Children” develops further the moral and emotional complexities within slave families. In the Harriet Jacobs’ narrative, slavery affects Jacobs ability to create a family in the image she desires, or that her grandmother has been able to create. With this new perspective that Chesnutt presents, we are seeing a white father of an enslaved child grapple with his past decisions when face-to-face with his son. Additionally, we see the son grapple with his identity. Both of these authors seem to imply that slavery leaves a mark (physically in the image of their children or skin color and emotionally) on families who have been created by the sins, evils, wrong decisions, or harsh conditions of slavery. The son exclaims “You gave me a white man’s spirit, and you made me a slave, and crushed it out” (43). He goes further to explain that “no degree of learning or wisdom will change the color of my skin and that I shall always wear what in my own country is a badge of degradation” (43). This “badge” is immediately apparent as the sheriff’s son is the sole prisoner, suspected for the murder. There is no concrete evidence to prove his guilt, yet it is clear that there is no hope in a fair trial because his innocence is tied to the color of his skin. Therefore, Chesnutt presents an example of post-war racial discrimination, which the next generations of slave families will have to face. 

However, the effects of slavery on the family are felt too by the Sheriff. Here, Chesnutt presents a very new perspective among these family dynamics – that of the regretful slaveowner/father. While it is clear that his son does not see him as deserving of this title or relationship, the Sheriff “saw that he had owed some duty to this son of his, – that neither law nor custom could destroy a responsibility inherent in the nature of mankind” (45). There seems to be a scarlet-letter-like burden of the consequences of his sins. He creates a plan that might “atone for for his crime against this son of his – against society – against God” (45). Ultimately, the Sheriff is too late, and his son has died by the fatal wound inflicted by the Sheriff’s legitimate child, Polly. The close timing seems to imply something of the permanent and emotionally costly actions of the white slaveowners who have fathered children by slaves. The notion of a moral turnaround being too late for the immediate discrimination a child of color will face. Thus, there is no reduction in emotional damage or ethical purity if the child has been sold far way, the effects are lasting. 

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Out of the selection of Emily Dickinson poetry for Tuesday’s class, Poem 202 stood out to me. I believe that its resonance is mainly because of how impressed I am with it. Only four lines, it packs quite a punch with how much is effectively used in it and the space created for many readers’ interpretations. My first thought after reading the poem was that its meaning derives from the conflict between science and religion or the observable and tangible versus the intangible. While Dickinson seems to be setting up a conflict between faith and microscopes, she uses poetry techniques that seem to unite the two thoughts. For example, the exclamation marks that end each sentence or the slant rhyme between “see” and “emergency” (which are the words that conclude each sentence). Furthermore, she is connecting the two subjects with their roles as visual aids for things that cannot be seen with the naked eye. Instead, this evidence supports a more light-hearted or playful tone for this poem. I am interested to know what she implies by faith being an “invention”, in which the connotation seems to be ambiguous because of the “Gentlemen who see” (2). Who are these Gentlemen? Overall, I feel that she is admiring those that can see spiritually and believe in a power that is not visible, while wittily acknowledging a practical and more convenient/easier example of sight. 

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In Douglass’ Narrative, in Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and with Harriet Jacobs’ Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, the issue of how families are affected under slavery is very prevalent. And for the latter two readings, where the issue is at the forefront, the female perspective is quite powerful. There is a universality to the mother-daughter relationship that is beyond race or geography – and time – which the authors employ to evoke at the very least sympathy, or ideally empathy, from their white audiences. 

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl establishes and brings to light many new ideas on how slavery impacts the family (or maybe how we must perceive family in this historical context). In particular, in Chapter 11 (The New Tie to Life), Jacobs reflects on what her grandmother said of her parents’ death, that “‘Perhaps your mother and father are taken from the evil days to come”’ (53). Yet, Jacobs has just encountered these “evil days”, which prompts her questions, “But why, thought I, did my relatives cherish hopes for me? What was there to save me from the usual fate of slave girls? […] How could they hope that I should escape?” (53). These are hard questions to answer and probably do not mean to be answered. Rather, they reflect a deep internal conflict that involves Jacobs’ identity. Who is she to become when there are expectations held by her family, expectations held by herself, and expectations held by the institution of slavery (which is the harsher and more inescapable reality)? In the following chapters, many of the decisions she has to make emphasize this inner battle.

Furthermore, these questions are prompted by her recent pregnancy, where these questions seem to reflect her regret or shame in being responsible for bringing a child up under slavery. Similar to Cassy in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, she often thinks of how it would be easier if her children were to die, so they did not have to suffer under slavery. Yet, her children are what give her a new reason to live. A few chapters before, Jacobs states that “the condition of a slave confuses all principles of morality, and, in fact renders the practice of them impossible” (48), and I think is the only perspective that needs to be taken or to be reminded of. Nevertheless, the deep complexity that this situation presents forces the reader to reflect and think about family in a new way – generationally. And in connection to this, the hope that arises for the new generation, which is rooted in doing better than the previous generations. 

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It is clear that Uncle Tom’s Cabin relies heavily on its characters, and as I read on, I was overwhelmed with the new characters being introduced. However, I think that the many characters serve to reflect Stowe’s ambition with this novel, which tries to reflect many opinions from people of many different racial and religious backgrounds. Every new character is a foil of another character and/or introduces a new argument or narrative into the discourse on slavery and religion’s role in it. 

An explicit example of this is with Topsy and Eva. According to our narrator, the children are “representatives of the two extremes of society” (254). Eva is a child born into high society with a father who spoils her and does everything to shield her from the cruelties of the world. Topsy is a child who has been taken away from her birthparents and has only been treated as wicked (and has experienced many violent whippings, beatings, etc. by her previous owners). Furthermore, while Eva is often described as an angel and a perfect Christian child, Topsy is initially characterized by her “wild diablerie” (256) and devilish or wicked acts.

Much of this storyline focuses on why Topsy is this way; Miss Ophelia is always asking, “‘What does make you so bad, Topsy?”’ (289). Topsy acts in such a way because she truly believes that she cannot be loved or thought of as good because she is black. In particular, it was hard for me to read this quote: “‘If I could be skinned, and come white, I’d try then [to be good]”’ (290). Eva is able to unveil the answer because she both physically and emotionally connects to Topsy – touching her shoulder and expressing her true or heavenly love. It is here that marks Topsy’s shift in behavior to be more aligned with Eva. 

This relationship seems to represent a victory of good over evil where the Christ-like act contributes to this breakthrough. The explicit takeaway from St. Clare is that “if we want to give sight to the blind, we must be willing to do as Christ did, – call them to us, and put our hands on them”’ (290-91). Stowe is arguing that readers must learn to accept every one as equals and to treat them as equals because Christianity presents this as a moral law or fact of life. Eva tells Topsy that “‘Jesus loves all alike”’ and “‘He will help you to be good”’ (290), which further adds to Stowe’s interpretation of the Bible. The introduction of Topsy continues the novel’s perspective that religion is a necessary part in dismantling slavery’s hold in society. 

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“But the principal relic of faded grandeur was the ample oval of the shield-like stern-piece, intricately carved with the arms of Castile and Leon, medallion about by groups of mythological or symbolical devices; uppermost and central of which was a dark satyr in a mask, holding his foot on the prostrate neck of a writhing figure, likewise masked” (1513-14). 

I think the most important aspect that is alluded to in this excerpt are the masks. Disguises in “Benito Cereno” keep Captain Delano in a constant state of shifting perceptions, which drives the plot forwards. Additionally, the disguises complicates the various ideas or arguments being made on race in the story.  

An initial interpretation of the masked satyr is Babo, who is presented as a loyal servant to Captain Cereno. Babo is always at his side and many times is the subject of gratitude and thanks by Cereno. Throughout Delano’s time on board San Dominick, the character that Babo plays distracts from his true power over the entire ship. It is clear in the declarations and testimonies at the end that he was the mastermind of the rebellion, which can be reflected by the satyr’s foot on the neck of the other figure (possibly Benito Cereno who is also “masked” and is acting within the system of slavery) on the stern-piece. However, it has to be addressed then what the satyr means. Satyrs are mythological creatures that look like humans but have horse/goat features (legs/lower-half, ears, horns, etc), which then present Babo’s true self as animalistic or unreal or “other”, presenting a racist ideology. The rebellion’s significance then is simplified to a socially Darwinistic line of thought. Instead of stemming from moral or ethical issues, the rebellion is the result of distinct racial differences.

Continuing this initial interpretation, Benito Cereno could be the victim in this scene. Benito Cereno disguises himself as a sickly, passive, and distant captain, when in fact, this disposition is due to the threat on his life. The mask (his weakness) acts in driving away suspicion as to the true power dynamic, where in reality he is not captain but hostage. Also, the victim of the satyr’s aggression can be generalized to the practice of slavery (Benito Cereno was facilitating the transport of the slaves aboard, contributing to the global system of slavery). 

Yet, this interpretation can be analyzed in many different ways. I think another possibility would to think of it the other way around and in the framework of each parties’ outcome. Who benefited even after all the destruction? Who is depicted in what light? It seems that the argument could be made that the Europeans/Americans are the satyr. Or it could be interesting to think Captain Delano individually, and what his role could be in the scene? Could the system of slavery be the satyr? There is any number of interpretations, and often they cannot be strictly confined to the excerpt above, but it does provoke a number of questions on what is trying to be said of race in this story.

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Hawthorne’s use of mirroring was most interesting to me because it takes on a lot of different manifestations. Mirrors seem to obtain their power as devices because they can reveal not only a simple reflection but a reframed image. This perspective seems to emphasize characters’ internal conflicts and provide a place for Hawthorne to shift the tone of Hester’s scarlet letter. 

Mr. Dimmesdale would perform vigils where he would view “his own face in a looking-glass, by the most powerful light which he could throw upon it” (505). However, the reflection yields to more supernatural and paranoid visions. First “it was a herd of diabolic shapes, that grinned and mocked at the pale minister, and beckoned him away with them” (505) which suggests that there is a temptation in the minister to yield to the darkness/devil/Satan.  Then it was a “group of angels, who flew upward heavily […] but grew more ethereal as they rose” (505) which suggests his future and possibly the hope that Heaven will still accept him (even if he is heavy with a burden). Furthermore, the latter part of the image seems to allude to the ever-increasing fame and loyalty that the community was putting towards him (to some he was a living manifestation of the divine). The mirror is acting as a window into his future or a reflection of a truer self that he cannot see. However, in either interpretation, his internal conflict is being put on display.

Additionally, Pearl often sees reflections of herself in the water. Out of a tide pool “peeped…with dark, glistening curls around her head, and an elf-smile in her eyes, the image of a little maid” (517). A description that is often used for Pearl, but which at the moment seems to be separate from Pearl. More importantly, this reflection “beckoned likewise, as if to say, – ‘This is a better place! Come thou into the pool!’” (517) which is similar to the diabolical shapes of Dimmesdale’s vision. Is it that the little maid is the devil reaching out to Pearl? Or is it just the wild imagination that Pearl has developed over her years of isolation? The brook in the forest provides an alternative experience for Pearl, where “a perfect image of her little figure, with all the brilliant picturesqueness of her beauty” was reflected (539). Here, the reflection is Pearl’s but “more refined and spiritualized than the reality” (539) which creates a doubt in her devilish qualities. These two different reflections seem to suggest that within Pearl are two fighting personalities. 

Furthermore, there was mirroring in the cyclical nature of the novel’s plot. The setting of the scaffolding among a wide audience is how Hawthorne chooses to start and end the novel, yet the end presents a new interpretation for Hester’s original sin (which is how we start). The mirroring of the scenes is not static but reframes Hester’s introduction. The scarlet letter, while not something to be proud of, transforms into something that no one could have imagined and definitely not what it was intended. To get to this scene, the reader has seen how Hester does not allow the scarlet letter to hold her down, rather she forms her life around it and spends all her time becoming a better person (as to say that she will not only be defined by the letter/her sin). This moment allows for everyone to re-evaluate their own opinions of Hester and to sympathize with her. 

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Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and the excerpt from My Bondage and My Freedom while about the same scene, are very different. I wanted to note some differences in tone and language that I found in the passages, which seem to reflect the additional years Douglass has had to reflect on this turning point in his life and what additional knowledge he has learned. 

The first notable difference: “My master, who I did not venture to hope would protect me as a man, had even now refused to protect me as his property” (Bondage, 1229). I know that in the early text Douglass does not shy away from the term “property”, but he always uses it passively when in reference to himself. In Narrative, it is inferred that Douglass is a part of this larger group who suffers the effects of commodification and further dehumanization. Here, it is a stark and direct declaration, which shifts the tone significantly to be more confident – or assertive – of the truth he was establishing in the former text. 

Another notable difference was the addition of this excerpt: “I was loved by the colored people, because they thought I was hated for my knowledge, and persecuted because I was feared” (Bondage, 1231). The awareness shown in this statement is bold because it is so blunt and it seems to acknowledge how he recognized his actions as having an effect/were being noticed. It is not that Narrative did not convey this message of knowledge as a weapon, but the declaration from Douglass himself was not seen. The fight with Covey or Mr. Auld’s reaction to the ABCs provides a good illustration of how knowledge is feared in slaves by slave masters, but it strikes as even more powerful in this written format. For me, these past two declarations are symbolic of Douglass becoming even more comfortable with and aware of how using words can influence politics, culture, and history. 

The last thing that I wanted to note was the line “I was nothing before; I WAS A MAN NOW” (Bondage, 1235). In Narrative, there are the similar lines that read as “and behold a man transformed into a brute!” (1199) and “you shall see how a slave was made a man” (1200). I’ll preface that I do not mean to say that the latter lines are being replaced by the former because this is something that I cannot know, yet the change does reflect the same theme (as the previous examples). Whereas in Narrative, Douglass seems to be separating the Douglass of the past from the present, the later text revises the statement to indicate Douglass’ complete possession of his past (“I” is being used now). In all, these differences develop a growing sense of stability and confidence in his identity.

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“The Man of the Crowd” stood out to me as the black sheep of this selection of Poe’s work. We were tasked with looking for patterns, but I couldn’t help to feel that there was something “against” the pattern with this piece. Most notably, Poe removes the role of the macabre mansion or house. There is a post up (Cate’s) that talks of Poe’s use of architecture to affect the reader’s emotions – to feel certain emotions, like the characters of the stories. Yet “The Man of the Crowd” sets itself on “one of the principal thoroughfares of the city” and wide in the open-air (656). I saw the use of the house as a way for Poe to control his characters (or the variables of the story) – and thus, the mixture of fact and fiction. In the case of “The Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Masque of the Red Death”, this is especially true because isolation guarantees that only the narrative survives through a limited point of view (see the many posts on the unreliability of Poe’s narrators). 

Except the busy streets of London are very real. So how does Poe keep the same sense of foreboding? The setting of night-time, fog, falling rain, street-lamp lighting, the anonymity of a crowd, and this strange, older man, acts in a similar fashion in framing the story as the house/mansion. 

The narrator’s fascination with the man binds the setting to only where the man goes in a few hours. The man’s face as having “within my mind [brought] the ideas of vast mental power, of caution, of penuriousness, of avarice, of coolness, of malice, of blood-thirstiness, of triumph, of merriment […] of supreme despair” (659). Furthermore, the start of night and the street-lamp illumination of the man’s face starts the “chase”, but the nearing of day and the bright light of the “suburban temples of Intemperance – one of the palaces of the fiend, Gin” (661) marks the end. 

The sense that this chase was fruitless or that we are back where it started emphasizes the conclusion of the narrator that “er lasst sich nicht lesen” (662). 

-Katherine Adee